Josephus Flavius and the Eastern Borders of Roman Europe

І. Pompey and the Jewish Sabbath

The 63 B.C. the famous Roman general Pompey took by force the city of Jerusalem and entered the Holy of the Holies in the Temple: which, as everybody then knew, was not permitted not only to pagans as Pompey himself, but to anybody – except of the High Priest once in the year. Pompey won easily one or two battles against a Judean army, but was stopped by the mighty wall around this part of Jerusalem, where was the Temple. According to most historians of the time – including the best informed among them, Josephus – Pompey was helped by the condition, that the Jews did not fight in the day of Sabbath.
Josephus tells us about this in the following way:
And indeed it was a hard thing to fill up that valley, by reason of its immense depth, especially as the Jews used all the means possible to repel them from their superior situation; nor had the Romans succeeded in their endeavours, had not Pompey taken notice of the seventh day, on which the Jews abstain from all sorts of work on a religious account and raised his bank, but restrained his soldiers from fighting on those days; for the Jews only acted defensively on Sabbath days. But as soon as Pompey had filled up the valley, he erected high towers upon the bank, and brought those engines, which they had fetched from Tyre near to the wall, and tried to batter it down… but the towers on this side of the city made very great resistance, and were indeed extraordinary both for largeness and magnificence (Josephus, The Wars Of The Jews, I, 7, 3)
Besides, Pompey had been amazed by the perseverance and imperturbability, with which the Jewish priests had performed the worship service, although they had been directly attacked. Even when they had been beaten to death, they hadn’t ceased to execute the demanded sacred deeds with the greatest punctuality, precisely in the same manner, in which they would have done it in peaceful time.
Josephus says the following:
Now here it was that, upon the many hardships which the Romans underwent, Pompey could not but admire not only at the other instances of the Jews' fortitude, but especially that they did not at all intermit their religious services, even when they were encompassed with darts on all sides; for, as if the city were in full peace, their daily sacrifices and purifications, and every branch of their religious worship, was still performed to God with the utmost exactness. Nor indeed when the temple was actually taken, and they were every day slain about the altar, did they leave off the instances of their Divine worship that were appointed by their law; for it was in the third month of the siege before the Romans could even with great difficulty overthrow one of the towers, and get into the temple (Josephus, The Wars Of The Jews, I, 7, 4).
The Jews had become famous with this way of self-sacrifice centuries before that. So, one of the Macedonian rulers of Egypt had taken Jerusalem in the beginning of the third century B.C., taking advantage, like Pompey, of the Sabbath.
Now it came to pass, that when Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, came into this city with his army, that these men, in observing this mad custom of theirs, instead of guarding the city, suffered their country to submit itself to a bitter lord; and their law was openly proved to have commanded a foolish practice. This accident taught all other men but the Jews to disregard such dreams as these were, and not to follow the like idle suggestions delivered as a law, when, in such uncertainty of human reasonings, they are at a loss what they should do (Agatharchides, a pagan historian cited by Josephus in Against Apion, I, 22).


ІІ. Jerusalem and the boundaries of pagan Europe

Pompey had captured Jerusalem, but treated the population mercifully and did not sack the treasures in the Temple. 133 years later Titus not only had conquered the town, but also burnt the Temple and murdered the majority of its population. Half a century after that Hadrian built at this place a huge pagan temple and even changed the name of the city – he called it Elia. This had never happened to any of the cities, with which Rome had conflicts. Carthago, one hundred years after its demolition, had been rebuilt by the Romans themselves – and with the same name. It is obvious, that Jerusalem had been considered as an irreconcilable enemy – a city, which cannot be associated, but only deleted.
These events might serve as the basis of reflection on the question: where are the boundaries of Roman Europe. The expansion of Rome, as well as of the Hellenistic kingdoms, governed by the successors of Alexander, was marked by the acceptance of its deities. Imperial Rome was there, where was erected the statues of her emperors. The Jews probably never would rebelled – neither against the emperorors nor before them against Hellenistic kings as Antioch the IV – if the state of the conquerors had not menaced their divine service. But it had been inevitable the pagan state to be a threat, because the Roman religion, especially after the deification of the emperors from Caesar onwards, is a cult to the Roman state, and the Jews refused to serve other gods besides their Lord. So, thus, this conflict, which at first glance seems to be “only religious”, turns out to be a political one, as well. Because, the essence of the worship of the Roman deities is the welfare of the state, and therefore the one, who refuses to worship them, opposes the state. According to the Jews, however, a state should exist in order to protect the divine service; and a state, which cannot secure the service to the one God, is useless. That’s why the Romans as statesmen inevitably will persecute a worship, which rejects their deities, and the Jews will reject a state, which imposes to them a cult, incompatible with their worship.
After the demolition of the Temple in front of the Roman state emerges a problem, in a certain degree similar to the previous one – the problem with the Christians. From the correspondence between Pliny the Younger and the emperor Trajan is evident that the Christians had been persecuted mainly as a political community, although they hadn’t perceived themselves like that. The reason had been the same – the refusal to participate in the state cult. Thus the emperor had been confronted by people, who despite of the fact that they are Roman citizens, actually live in the empire as its opponents – because they do not obey and refuse to obey the orders of the state, in the cases when these commands refer to a matter of faith.
How this conflict could be resolved? Either the state had to give up its own cult, or the Christians to be exterminated – as believers or physically. The first had happened and so the Roman state had disappeared as pagan state. Thus, the policy of the emperors – external and internal – of imposing the state cult forcibly had been in vain; the cult had disappeared.


ІІІ. Pope Benedict XVI on the spiritual situation of our times

Recently, (10 days ago in Paris) pope Benedict XVI, made the following public statement:
The word 'idol' comes from the Greek and means 'image,' 'figure,' 'representation,' but also 'ghost,' 'phantom,' 'vain appearance.' An idol is a delusion, for it turns its worshipper away from reality and places him in the kingdom of mere appearances."
"Now," the Pope asked, "is this not a temptation in our own day - the only one we can act upon effectively? The temptation to idolize a past that no longer exists, forgetting its shortcomings; the temptation to idolize a future which does not yet exist, in the belief that, by his efforts alone, man can bring about the kingdom of eternal joy on earth!" In the same way, "have not money, the thirst for possessions, for power and even for knowledge, diverted man from his true destiny?" (Pope: Shun the worship of modern idols http://www.catholicnewsagency.com/new.php?n=13794)
On my part, personally, without being a Roman Catholic, I could agree with the words of the pope. The European Union does not have any clear politics on the question of the religion. It is considered, that religion is just “one of the many problems” and maybe not the most important one, and moreover, that it is “a personal matter of everybody”.
However, it is possible religion to abide in a place, where it is imperceptible for the majority of the people. The head of the Catholic Church already says that today the attitude of the people to the market is in fact a religious attitude. The supreme values are the welfare, conceived as the satisfaction of all kinds of desires in one’s personal life and the equity in front of the law.
But the same values had been the pride of Rome, as well. Its deities had been the deities of the well-being and success. The myths narrate that they are creatures, who try to satisfy their own bodily desires and striving for power and honour. Today the boundaries of Europe again reach to the limit, from where on the satisfaction of various desires in one’s personal life is not a supreme value. Beyond this limit, however, occur changes in the public life, as well.

***

The aim of this text is to pay attention to the indifference of the European leaders towards the question of religion in the European union. In fact, there is an implicit hostility against the view, which claims that the goods of this world are temporary and therefore insignificant. The example of the Roman Empire shows that neither the welfare, nor the violence could resist a faith, which points to the supreme good as external from this world.
Contemporary Europe, deprived from a religion of its own, will be left open to the increasing pressure from Islam – and this will be not so much external, as internal pressure. This may lead to violence, probably exerted by xenophobic groups in the beginning, but tolerated by some governments. Then this might lead to the break of the union. Then the leadership will be taken either by professed neo-pagans, similar to the Italian and German rulers 70 years ago, either by countries, whose rulers will be the first to declare, that the state exist for the sake of the religion.

The Historical Novel II

Feuchtwanger`s “The Jewish War”
(handout)


I. Josephus Flavius and the Jewish War

1.

He was born Joseph ben Mattathias in Jerusalem in 37 CE, a few years after the time of Jesus, during the time of the Roman occupation of the Jewish homeland. In his early twenties he was sent to Rome to negotiate the release of several priests held hostage by Emperor Nero. When he returned home after completing his mission he found the nation beginning a revolution against the Romans.
Despite his foreboding that the cause was hopeless, he was drafted into becoming commander of the revolutionary forces in Galilee, where he spent more time controlling internal factions than fighting the Roman army. When the city of Jotapata he was defending fell to the Roman general Vespasian, Joseph and his supporters hid in a cave and entered into a suicide pact, which Joseph oddly survived.
Taken prisoner by Vespasian, Joseph presented himself as a prophet. Noting that the war had been propelled by an ancient oracle that foretold a world ruler would arise from Judaea, Joseph asserted that this referred to Vespasian, who was destined to become Emperor of Rome. Intrigued, Vespasian spared his life. When this prophecy came true, and Vespasian became Emperor, he rewarded Joseph handsomely, freeing him from his chains and eventually adopting him into his family, the Flavians. Joseph thus became Flavius Joseph.
During the remainder of the war, Joseph assisted the Roman commander Titus, Vespasian's son, with understanding the Jewish nation and in negotiating with the revolutionaries. Called a traitor, he was unable to persuade the defenders of Jerusalem to surrender to the Roman siege, and instead became a witness to the destruction of the city and the Holy Temple.
Living at the Flavian court in Rome, Josephus undertook to write a history of the war he had witnessed. He first wrote in his native language of Aramaic, then with assistance translated it into Greek (the most-used language of the Empire). It was published a few years after the end of the war, in about 78 CE.

2.

6 CE Archalaeus, Ethnarch of Judea, is deposed. Judea ceases to be governed by Jews and becomes a Roman province under Procurator Coponius. Census and taxes imposed.
41 Caligula assassinated. Claudius becomes emperor with the aid of Agrippa, grandson of Herod. Claudius bestows kingship of Judea and other lands on Agrippa.
44 Agrippa I dies. Judea again comes under the rule of a Roman procurator (Fadus).
50 Some Jewish lands assigned to kingship of Agrippa II.
54 and after. Jewish revolutionary activity heats up. "Sicarii" terrorists kill High Priest Jonathan. Felix uses force and executions to suppress revolt. Would-be prophets stir up the people; the "Egyptian," a Messianic figure, gains followers, many of whom are killed by Felix's army.
59 Festus becomes Procurator. Paul presents his case to Festus and Agrippa II, then is sent to Rome to appeal to the Emperor.
59-62 Festus continues to battle Sicarii. Clashes between Jews and Greeks in Caesarea.
65 Florus becomes Procurator. HIs abuses of power cause the sedition to gain followers. Violence breaks out in Caesarea and spreads to Jerusalem.
66, Summer. Jewish War begins. Sacrifices for the Emperor are halted in the Temple. Masada is seized by the Zealots. The Roman garrison at the Antonia Fortress is captured. The High Priest is slain by the rebels.
July 67 Jotapata falls after a six-week siege. Joseph captured. Claims that the Messianic prophecies that began the war actually applied to Vespasian, who therefore was destined to become Emperor. Vespasian, charmed, retains Joseph as hostage and interpreter.
July 69 Vespasian's legions proclaim him Emperor. Joseph`s prophecy having come true, he is freed. He takes Vespasian's family name of Flavius and marries a captive.
70, May 1. Titus encamps outside Jerusalem, beginning the siege. Joseph attempts to persuade the leaders of the revolt to surrender, but fails.
70, Tenth of Av (August 30). The Temple of Jerusalem is destroyed. Jerusalem is taken by Titus. The War effectively ends.

(Josephus Flavius Home Page)


II. Feuchtwanger, his Literary Work and his Views on the Historical Novel

1.

Lion Feuchtwanger (pseudonym: J.L. Wetcheek) (7 July 1884 - 21 December 1958) was a German-Jewish novelist who was imprisoned in a French internment camp in Les Milles and later escaped to Los Angeles with the help of his wife, Marta.
Background
Feuchtwanger was born in Munich in 1884, and raised in a Jewish household. He studied literature and philosophy in the universities in Munich and Berlin.
Early career and persecution
Lion served in the Germany Army during World War I. He soon became a figure in the literary world and was already well-known in 1925 when his first popular novel, Jud Süß, appeared. He also published Erfolg (m. "Success"), which was a thinly veiled criticism at the Nazi Party and Hitler. While he was on a speaking tour of America, in Washington, D.C., he was a guest of honor at a dinner hosted by then German ambassador Friedrich Wilhelm von Prittwitz und Gaffron. That same day (January 30, 1933) Hitler was appointed Chancellor, and the next day, Prittwitz resigned from the diplomatic corps and called Feuchtwanger and recommended not to return home.
Feuchtwanger and his wife did not return to Germany, moving instead to Southern France, settling in Sanary sur Mer. His works were included among those burned during the May 10, 1933 book burnings held across Germany.
In 1936, still in Sanary, he wrote The Pretender (Der falsche Nero), in which he compared the Roman upstart Terentius Maximus, who had claimed to be Nero, with Hitler.
Imprisonment and escape
When the Germans invaded France in 1940, Feuchtwanger was captured and imprisoned in an internment camp, Les Milles (Camp des Milles). He escaped Les Milles with the help of his wife Marta,Varian Fry, an American journalist who helped refugees escape from occupied France, and Hiram (Harry) Bingham IV, US Vice Consul in Marseilles. Feuchtwanger eventually received asylum in the United States, settled in Pacific Palisades, California in 1941, and continued to write there until his death in 1958.

· The Josephus Trilogy -- about Flavius Josephus beginning in the year 60 in Rome
o Der jüdische Krieg (Josephus), 1932
o Die Söhne (The Jews of Rome), 1935
o Der Tag wird kommen (Das gelobte Land, The day will come, Josephus and the Emperor), 1942

(From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

In Germany, paperback editions of Feuchtwanger's novels have sold close to a million copies from the late seventies to the present day. His Frankfurt publisher asserts that "In my thirty years of experience as an editor, I have never seen a renaissance comparable to that of Feuchtwanger."
No such popularity has attended Feuchtwanger in the United States, where he remains largely unknown, except among cognoscenti of modern German literature. This reader unfamiliarity most likely stems from the fact that Feuchtwanger was anathema to American Cold Warriors of the late 1940s and the 1950s. In 1937, in the midst of the vicious "show trials" of falsely accused army officers, Feuchtwanger had made a visit to Moscow, in which he was granted an interview with Stalin, based upon Feuchtwanger’s already apparent sympathy with socialism. His report on the experience warmly praised Stalin and his program. He never formally recanted that naïve attitude... Feuchtwanger believed in egalitarianism, and hated the fascism that had done so much evil to him and his people. But he was hardly a cheerleader of the Communist cause.
(from Jim Bloom`s “Lion Feuchtwanger and his Josephus Trilogy”)

2.

One topic that has deeply moved me as long as I can remember is the conflict between nationalism and internationalism in the heart of a single individual. If I were to tackle this theme in the form of a contemporary novel, I fear my presentation might be overshadowed and contaminated by personal grudges and resentment. I chose therefore to transplant this conflict into the soul of a man, the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, who, it appeared to me, had experienced it in the same way as so many do today, with the difference that he did so 1860 years ago.
I hope I have retained the peace of mind to judge things fairly; still I believe I can do a convincing job of depicting the persons who - 1870 years ago - put the torch to various central buildings in Nero's Rome, poor, foolish implements of the feudalists and militarists of their day that they were, and indeed do a more convincing job of it than I could of describing the people who two years ago set fire to the Reichstag in Berlin - poor, foolish tools that they were of the feudalists and militarists of our own era.
I have written both contemporary novels and historical ones. After closely examining my conscience, I venture to state that in my historical novels I intended the content to be just as modern and up-to-date as in the contemporary ones. It never occurred to me to write about history for its own sake... Other writers may place their conceptions at a greater spatial distance, perhaps in some exotic locale, in order to set them off with greater clarity; I for the same purpose have removed mine to a certain distance in time: that is the only difference.
I have always made an effort to render every detail of my reality with the greatest accuracy; but I have never paid attention to whether my presentation of historical facts was an exact one. Indeed, I have often altered evidence which I knew to be documented if it appeared to interfere with my intended effect. Contrary to the scientist, the author of historical novels has the right to choose a lie that enhances illusion over a reality that distracts from it.
I cannot imagine that a serious novelist, when working with historical subject matter, could ever regard historical facts as anything other than a means of achieving distance, as a metaphor, in order to render his own feelings, his own era, his own philosophy, and himself as accurately as possible.
(L. Feuchtwanger, "Vom Sinn des historischen Romans," 1935, Das Neue Tage-Buch.
Translated by John Ahouse)


III. The Feuchtwanger `s “Jewish War”, the Jews and the “Who-is-a-Human-Being” Question

1. Vespasian and Johanan ben Zakkai. Do the non-Jews possess a soul?

Marshall came very close to the tiny theologian, touched his shoulder and asked :
- But this does not contradict the fact that you do not feel us to be true people?
Iohanan still not opening his eyes, argued quietly, as if from afar :
- On the Feast of the Tabernacles, we do sacrificed 70 bulls for non-Jews.
…
- What are the seven precepts? – asked the Roman.
Yohanan raised his eyebrows, his blue eyes clear and very young, and looked directly into the grey eyes of Vespasian.
- One is positive and six are negative - he said. - Individuals must do justice, not deny God, not worship idols, not kill, not steal, not betray his husband/wife and not abuse animals.
Vespasian thought a little and said with regret :
- Well, then I have little chance to receive the holy spirit

2. The Actor Demetrius and his people

- Oh, my very good Jews - he [Demetrius] continued. - They shout against me where they can. In the synagogue they are cursing me just for the fact that I do not disregard a gift given me by God, and scare their children with me. But when they have some problem, then they come to me and they fill my ears with their requests. Then Demetrius Libanius is good enough.
- Lord, - said the young Antony Marull – yes, the Jews always complain, as everyone knows.
- I ask! - suddenly stood up and screamed the actor. - I ask you not to offend the Jews in my house! I am a Jew.

3. Joseph – experienced but impure
a.
I am priest from the first sequence - said Joseph.
- Damn these Jewish people, they are too pretentious, appealed to Caenis Vespasian. - Some of us may be touched her, this doesn`t mean that she is losing her taste. And yet, Emperor Nero and I myself, we married divorced women, isn`t so, Caenis?
- I come from rabbis - said Joseph very slowly. - My family goes back to King David ..

b.
When Joseph Ben Mattathias, according to the will of Berenike, went to her, she made a defending gesture of the hand and exclaimed :
- Do not come closer! Stand there! Between you and me there must be seven steps.
Joseph became pale when she stepped back as if he was leprous.

(Translation Google)

* this is a handout for a lecture, held at the Third Contact Session (August 2007) of the three-year "Contextualizing Classics" project of the Sofia University and the HESP Regional Seminar for Excellence in Teaching (Open Society Institute, Budapest).